Microplastics in Food and Drinking Water: Exposure, Toxicity and Health Risks: A Review

Abstract

The widespread use of plastic materials over the past several decades has resulted in the accumulation of microplastics (MPs) across environmental systems. Increasing evidence indicates that these particles are present in multiple environmental compartments, including water, soil, air, and food products, enabling their entry into the human food chain. Plastics are widely used in packaging, processing, and storage due to their durability, light weight, and economic advantages; however, their degradation produces persistent microplastics that pose emerging environmental and health concerns. This review critically examines the occurrence, sources, and transfer pathways of microplastics in the food chain, with particular emphasis on food commodities, packaging materials, and agricultural inputs. Despite growing research attention, significant uncertainties remain regarding the mechanisms of microplastic transfer, bioaccumulation, and long-term human health effects. Addressing these knowledge gaps is essential for developing effective monitoring strategies and mitigation policies.