Liver Damage Risk Assessment Study in Workers Occupationally Exposed to E-waste in Benin City, South-South Nigeria

Authors

1 Department of Chemical Pathology, Toxicology and Micronutrient Metabolism Unit, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

2 Basel Convention Coordinating Centre for Training & Technology Transfer for the African Region & Department of Chemistry University of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

3 Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medical Sciences, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria

4 Chemical Pathology Laboratory, Faith MediPlex Hospital, Benin City, Nigeria

Abstract

  Large volumes of mostly irreparable electronic waste (e-waste) are shipped to Africa on a monthly basis, of which Nigeria receives the largest share. E-waste management practices in Nigeria have remained completely primitive until date; and e-waste workers have little or no occupational safety knowledge and devices. The thousands of chemicals in e-waste have been reported to be toxic to human health in any degree of exposure. The present study has assessed the risk of liver damage in workers occupationally exposed to e-waste in Benin City, South-south Nigeria in 2014. Serum activities of liver enzymes [alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma glutamyltransferase (GGT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP)]; and levels albumin (ALB), total bilirubin (T/Bil) and conjugated bilirubin (C/Bil) were determined using standard colorimetric methods. Serum Alpha fetoprotein (AFP) was determined using ELISA in Nigerian e-waste workers (n=63) and in age-matched unexposed participants (n=41) in Benin City. The results showed significantly raised activities of enzymatic biomarkers of liver damage (ALT, AST, ALP and GGT) in the e-waste group compared with the unexposed participants. There was no significant difference in the levels of ALB, T/Bil and C/Bil between exposed and unexposed participants. AFP levels in e-waste workers (3.56 ± 0.34 ng/mL) were significantly different compared with the unexposed group (2.14 ± 0.80 ng/mL) (P< 0.045). The significantly elevated cancer risk biomarker (AFP) and the enzymatic biomarkers of liver damage observed in the Nigerian e-waste workers studied may be associated with occupational exposure to known carcinogens and hepatotoxic metals in e-waste.

Keywords

References

  1. Ramesh B.B., Parande A.K., Ahmed B.C., 2007. Electrical and electronic waste: A global environmental problem. Waste Manag Res. 25, 307-318.
  2. Betram M., Graedel T.E., Rechberger H., Spatari S., 2002. The contemporary European copper cycle: waste management subsystem. Ecological Econs. 42, 43-57.
  3. Council of the European Parliament. Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). March 13, 2003. OJEU 2003; 37: 24-38.
  4. Sthiannopkao S., Wong M.H., 2012. Handling e-waste in developed and developing countries: Initiatives, practices, and consequences. Sci Total Environ. .http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969712009217. Accessed June 2012.
  5. Jinhui L., Huabo D., Pixing S., 2011. Heavy metal contamination of surface soil in electronic waste dismantling area: site investigation and source-apportionment analysis. Waste Manag Res. 29, 727-738.
  6. EC (2002a): Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. Official Journal L. 037, 13/02/2003: 19-23
  7. EC (2002b): Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) - Joint declaration of the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission relating to Article 9. Official Journal L 037, 13/02/2003: 24-39.
  8. Saxena N., 2011. Heavy metals and mammalian hepato-renal dexterity. Ind J Stud Res. 1(1), 1-32.
  9. Aginam E., Nigeria: E-waste Concern Re-Echoes at Clean Environment Forum. Vanguard (Aug.17, 2010), available at http://allafrica.com/stories/ 2010008180100 .html. Accessed 10/ 02/2013.
  10. Basel technical guidelines on the environmentally sound recycling/reclamation of metals and metal compounds (R4). Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, UNEP/CHW.7/8/Add.3 2004.Available at www.basel.int/meetings/cop/cop7/docs/08a3e.pdf. Accessed 18/7/2013.
  11. Aragba-Akpore S., 2005. Red Alert on used Computers, Electronic Devices. The Guardian (Dec. 27, 2005),available at http://www.ban.org/ban _ news /2005/05/227_nigeria.html.http://www.ban.org/ban_news/2005/05/227_nigeria.html. Accessed 18/7/2013
  12. Terada C., 2012. Recycling Electronic Wastes in Nigeria: Putting Environmental and Human Rights at Risk. Northwestern J Intââ‚‌™l Human Rights. 10(3), 154-172.
  13. Leung A.O., Cai Z.W., Wong M.H., 2006. Environmental Contamination from Electronic Waste Recycling at Guiyu, southeast China. Journal of Material Cycles Waste Management. 8(1), 21-33.
  14. Leung A.W., Duzgoren-Aydin N.S., Cheung K.C., Wong M.H., 2008. Heavy metals concentrations of surface dust from e-waste recycling and its human health implications in Southeast China. Environ Sci Technol. 42(7) 2674-2680.
  15. Robinson B.H., 2009. E-waste: an assessment of global production and environmental impacts. Sci. Total Environ. 408, 183-191.
  16. Hawley J.K., 1985. Assessment of health risk from exposure to contaminated soil. Risk Anal. 5, 289-302.
  17. Calabrese E.J., Kostecki P.T., Gilbert C.E., 1987. How much dirt do children eat? An emerging environmental health question Comment. Toxicol. 1, 229-241.
  18. Dietrich K.N., Berger O.G., Succop P.A., Hammond P.B., Bornschein R.L., 1993. The developmental consequences of low to moderate prenatal and postnatal lead exposure: intellectual attainment in the Cincinnati Lead Study Cohort following school entry. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 15, 37-44.
  19. Guilarte T.R., Opler M., Pletnikov M., 2012. Is lead exposure in early life an environmental risk factor for schizophrenia? Neurobiological connections and testable hypotheses. Neurotoxicology. 33, 560-574.
  20. Hellstrom L., Elinder C.G., Dahlberg B., Lundberg M., Jarup L., Persson B., Axelson O., 2001. Cadmium Exposure and End-Stage Renal Disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 38(5), 1001-1008.
  21. Sauer J.M., Wsalkes S.B., Hooser R.K., Kuster C.A., McQueen D., Sipes Z.G., 1997. Suppression of kupffer cells function prevents cadmium induced hepatocellular necrosis in male Sprague-dawley rats. Toxicol. 121(2), 155-164.
  22. Borges L.P., Borges V.C., Moro A.V., Nogueira C., 2005. Protective effect of diphenyldiselenide on acute liver damage induced by 2-Nitropropane in rats. Toxicol. 210, 1-8.
  23. Wu K., Xu X., Peng., Liua J., Guo Y., Huo X., 2012. Association between maternal exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) fromelectronic waste recycling and neonatal health outcomes. Environ Int. 48, 1ââ‚‌“8.
  24. Navarro V.J., Senior J.R., 2006. Drug-related hepatotoxicity. N Engl J Med. 354:731-739.
  25. Kedderis G.L., 1996. Biochemical basis of hepatocellular injury. Toxicol Pathol. 24, 77-83.
  26. Miyai K., Meeks R.G., Harrison S.D., Bull R.J., 1991. Structural organization of the liver. In: Hepatotoxicology. CRC Press, Boca Raton FL.
  27. Saukkonen J.J., Cohn D.L., Jasmer R.M., Schenker S., Jereb J.A., 2006. An Official ATS Statement: Hepatotoxicity of antituberculosis therapy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 174, 935-952.
  28. Samuel S., Kathirvel R., Jayavelu T., Chinnakkannu P., 2005. Protein oxidative damage in arsenic induced rat brain: influence of dl-α-lipoic acid. Toxicol Lett. 155(1).
  29. Shaikh Z.A., Vu T.T., Zaman K., 1999. Oxidative stress as a mechanism of chronic cadmium-induced hepatotoxicity and renal toxicity and protection by antioxidants. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 154(3), 256-263.
  30. Valko M., Morris H., 2005. Cronin MT. Metals, toxicity and oxidative stress. Curr Med Chem. 12, 1161-1208.
  31. Rin K., Kawaguchi K., Yamanaka K., Tezuka M., Oku N., Okada S., 1995. DNA-strand breaks induced by dimethylarsinic acid, a metabolite of inorganic arsenics, are strongly enhanced by superoxide anion radicals. Biol Pharm Bull. 18, 45-48.
  32. Clarkson T.W. 1997. The toxicology of mercury. Critical Rev Clin Lab Sci. 34, 369-403.
  33. Kolkivani V., Anusuya D.M., Sivarajan K., Parmeerselvam C., 2005. Combined efficacies of dl-α-lipoic acid and meso 2,3dimercaptosuccinicacid against arsenic induced toxicity in antioxidant systems of rats. Toxicol Lett. 160(1), 1-7.
  34. Jurczuk M., Brzoska M.M., Moniusko-Jakoniuk J., Galazyn-Sidorczuk M., Kulikowska-Karpinska E., 2004. Antioxidant enzyme activity and lipid peroxidation in liver and kidney of rats exposed to cadmium and ethanol. Food Chem Toxicol. 42, 429-438.
  35. Sarkar A., Ravindran G., Krishnamurthy V.A., 2013. A brief review on the effect of cadmium toxicity: From cellular to organ level. Int J Bio-Technol Res. 3(1), 17-36.
  36. Adaramodu A.A., Osuntogun B.A., Ehi-Eromosele C.O., 2012. Heavy Metal Concentration of Surface Dust Present in E-waste Components:TheWestminister Electronic Market, Lagos Case Study. ARPN J Sci Technol. 2 (Special Issue). 247-270.
  37. Szasz G., 1969. A kinetic photometric method for serum Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase. Clin Chem. 15, 124.
  38. Jendrassik L., Grof P., 1938. Verenifache photometriche methoden zur bestimming des, blutbilirubins. Bichem Zeitschrift. 297, 81-89.
  39. Vessella R.C., Noteboom J., Lang P.H. 1992. Evaluation of the Abbott IMX Automated Immuno assay of Prostate-specific antigen. Clinical Chemical. 38, 2044-2054.
  40. Stowell L.I., Sharman I.E., Hamel K., 1991. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) for prostate-specific antigen. Forensic Sci Int. 50, 125-138.
  41. Faubion W.A., Guicciardi M.E., Miyoshi H., Bronk S.F., Roberts P.J., Svingen P.A., Kaufmann S.H., Gores G.J., 1999. Toxic bile salts induce rodent hepatocyte apoptosis via direct activation of Fas. J Clin Inves. 103, 137-145.
  42. Pessayre D., Mansouri A., Haouzi D., Fromenty B., 1999. Hepatotoxicity due to mitochondrial dysfunction. Cell Biol Toxicol. 15, 367-373.
  43. Gao B., Radaeva S., Park O., 2009. Liver natural killer and natural killer T cells: immunobiology and emerging roles in liver diseases. J Leukoc Biol. 86, 513-528.
  44. SakthiPriya L., Chitra M., Manivasagam T., 2011. Modulatory Effect of Morin on D-Galactosamine Induced Hepatotoxicity in Rats. J Pharma Res Rev. 1 10-14
  45. Dufour D.R., Lott J.A., Nolte F.S., Gretch D.R., Koff R.S., 2000. Diagnosis and monitoring of hepatic injury: I. Performance characteristics of laboratory tests. Clin Chem. 46, 2027-2049.
  46. Amacher D.E., 2002. A toxicologistââ‚‌™s guide to biomarkers of hepatic response. Hum Exp Toxicol. 21, 253-262.
  47. Ozer J., Ratner M., Shaw M., Bailey W., Schomaker S., 2008. The current state of serum biomarkers of hepatotoxicity. Toxicol. 245, 194-205.
  48. Ramaiah S.K., 2007. A toxicologist guide to the diagnostic interpretation of hepatic biochemical parameters. Food Chem. Toxicol. 45, 1551-1557.
  49. Sheehan M., Haythorn P., 1979. Predictive values of various liver function tests with respect to the diagnosis of liver disease. Clin Biochem. 12, 262-263.
  50. Leonard T.B., Neptun D.A., Popp J.A., 1984. Serum gamma glutamyltransferase as a specific indicator of bile duct lesions in the rat liver. Am J Pathol. 116, 262-269.
  51. Al-Hashem F., Dallak M., Bashir N., Abbas M., 2009. Camel's milk protects against cadmium chloride induced toxicity in white albino rats. Am J Pharm Toxicol. 4(3), 107-117.
  52. Bashandy S.A., AlhazzaI M., El-Desoky G.E., Al-Othman Z.A., 2011. Hepatoprotective and hypo lipidemic effect of spirulinaplatensis in rats administered mercuric chloride. Afr J Pharma Pharmacol. 5(2), 175-182.
  53. Tripathi N., Flora S.J. 1998. Effects of some thiolchelators on enzymatic activities in blood. Liver and kidneys of acute arsenic (III) exposed mice. Biomed Environ Sci. 11(1), 33-45.
  54. Mondal A.K., Das S., Basu M.K., Chakrabarti R.N., Das N., 2007. Hepatoprotective activity of liposomal flavonoid against arsenite induced liver fibrosis. J Pharmacol Exp Therap. 320(3), 994-1001.
  55. Lee J.R., Park S.J., Lee H., Jee1 S.Y., 2009. Hepatoprotective activity of licorice water extract against cadmium-induced toxicity in rats. eCAM. 6(2), 195-201.
  56. Mahour K., Saxena P.N., 2008. Alteration of hepatosomatic index under stress of mercuric chloride intoxication and their modulation by Panax ginseng crude extract in Rattusnorvegicus. J Herbal Med Toxicol. 2(2), 29-31.
  57. Jagadeesan G., SankarsamiPillai S., 2007. Hepatoprotective effects of taurine against mercury induced toxicity in rats. J Environ Biol. 753-756.
  58. Ige S.F., Akhigbe R.E., Edeogho O., Ajao F.O., Owolabi O.Q., 2011. Hepatoprotective activities of allium cepa in cadmium-treated rats. Int J Pharm Pharmaceut Sci. 3(5), 60-63.
  59. Bamidele A., Ayannuga S., Olugbenga O., 2012. Hepatoprotective potentials of methanolic extract of the leaf of momordicacharantialinn on cadmium-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. J Nat Sci Res. 2(7), 41-47.
  60. Alhazzi I.M., 2008. Cadmium induced hepatotoxicity and oxidative stress in rats: Protection by selenium. Res J Environ Sci. 2(4), 305-309.
  61. Carl B.A., Edward R.A., David E.B., 2008. Liver diseases. Teittz Fundamentals of Clinical Chemistry. 6th edition. Saunders Elsevier. St Louis Missouri, USA pp. 693-713.
  62. MacDonald R.A., 1961. Lifespan of liver cells. Arch Int Med. 107, 78-87.
  63. Clavien P.A., Petrowsky H., DeOliveira M.L., Graf R., 2007. Strategies for safer liver surgery and partial liver transplantation. N Engl J Med. 356, 1545-1559.
  64. Dahm F., Georgiev P., Clavien P.A., 2005. Small-for-size syndrome after partial liver transplantation: definition, mechanisms of disease and clinical implications. Am J Transplant. 5, 2605ââ‚‌“2610.
  65. Higgins G.M., Anderson R.M., 1931. Experimental pathology of the liver I. Restoration of the liver of the white rat following partial surgical removal. Arch Pathol. 12, 186-202.
  66. Brues A.M., Drury D.R., Brues M.C., 1936. A quantitative study of cell growth in regenerating liver. Arch Pathol (Chic). 22, 658-673.
  67. Margeli A., Theocharis S., Skaltsas S., Skopelitou A., Mykoniatis M., 1994b. Effect of cadmium on liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy in rats. Environ Health Perspect. 102(3), 273-276.
  68. Tzirogiavinis K.N., Papadimas G.K., Kourentzi K.T., Kondili, V.G., Androutsos, C.D., Hereti, R.I., Triantaphyllou, M.I., Panoutsopoulus, G.I. 2005. The role of Hepatic Stimulator Substance (HSS) on liver regeneration arrest induced by cadmium, In Vivo : Int J Exp Clin Pathophysiol Drug Res. 19 (4), 695-704.
  69. Venkatesan R.S., Sadiq M.A. 2013. Ameliorating Effects of NaMSA on HgCl2 Induced Hepatogenous Poisoning In Albino Rats. Int J Pharmaceut Biol Arch. 4(5), 1007-1013.
  70. Mohamed E., Hisham A., Marwasalah M., 2010. Hepato ameliorative effect of Azadirachtaindica Leaves extract against mercuric chloride environmental pollution. J Am sci. 6, 9.
  71. Elias A., Oputiri D., Oru-Bo P.G., 2013. Hepatotoxicity of cadmium and roles of mitigating agents. Br J Pharmacol Toxicol. 4(6), 222-231.
  72. Ribarov S., Benov L., 1981. Relationship between haemolytic action of metals and lipid peroxidation. Biochem Biophys Acta. 640, 721-726
  73. Moussavian S.N., Becker R.C., Prepulyer J.L., Mezey E., Bozian R.C., 1985 Gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase and chronic alcoholism influence of alcohol ingestion and liver disease. Dig Dis Sci. 30(3), 211-214.
  74. Abdel-Moneim A.M., Al-Kahtani M.A., Dlmenshawy O.M., 2012. Histopathological biomarkers in gills and liver of Oreochromisniloticus from polluted wetland environments, Saudi Arabia. Chemosphere. 88: 1028- 1035.
  75. Abelev G.I., 1971. Alpha-fetoprotein in ontogenesis and its association with malignant tumors. Adv Cancer Res. 14, 295-358.
  76. Tatarinov Y.S., 1964. Detection of embryo-specific alpha globulin in the blood sera of patient with primary liver tumor. Vopr Med Khirn. 10, 90-91.

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 03 August 2015
  • Revise Date: 25 October 2021
  • Accept Date: 29 October 2018

Share

How to cite

Statistics